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Technical CommitteeStandards, Recommended Practices and StrategiesIASA-TC 03The Safeguarding of Audio heritage: Ethics, Principles and Preservation StrategyVersion 3, December 2005 |
Contents:
2. Primary and secondary information
3. The instability and vulnerability of audio carriers
5. Safeguarding the Information
6. Selection of best copy and carrier restoration
7. Optimal signal retrieval from analogue carriers
8. Unmodified transfer to a new target format
9. Improvements in transfer technologies
10. Digital target formats and resolution
12. Digital archiving principles
13. Digital mass storage systems
14. Solutions before DMSSs become affordable: Small scale manual approaches to digital storage
In an increasingly digital
environment, members of IASA and the archival community at large
have been asking how to safeguard the audiovisual heritage. The
Technical Committee of the International Association of Sound and
Audiovisual Archives (IASA) has prepared these general guidelines to
help meet these requests.
IASA-TC 03 aims to identify
problem areas and to propose recommended practices for use by sound
and AV archives in today's technical environment. These
recommendations are a balance between the ideal situation and the
real world that we inhabit. They are intended to help the reader to
focus on the various issues relating to responsible audio archiving
practice. At the same time it uses a consistent terminology and may
be read by people with financial responsibility for a collection as
well as by technically trained staff.
This document constitutes a
revision of earlier versions of IASA-TC 03 issued in September 2001
and February 1997. The revision is a consequence of the most recent
developments in digital audio archiving. The document has also taken
account of IASA-TC 04, Guidelines on the Production and
Preservation of Digital Audio Objects, published in 2004.
Accordingly, TC 03 concentrates on the principles while TC 04
provides detailed explanations of the practical consequences of TC
03.
The safeguarding of the audio
heritage will be the subject of further development because of
changes in technology and in the market places and the resulting
consequences for the archival community. The IASA Technical
Committee is continuously involved in monitoring, debating, and
influencing the situation. Whenever appropriate, an updated version
of this document will be issued.
Version 3 was prepared by a
writing group consisting of George Boston, George Brock-Nannestad,
Lars Gaustad, Albrecht Häfner, Dietrich Schüller and Tommy Sjöberg,
and was reviewed by the entire IASA Technical Committee
Dietrich Schüller
Editor
This document is not a Code of
Ethics for all aspects of sound archiving. It covers, however, the
ethical consequences resulting from the technical aspects of
recording, preserving and accessing sound documents within the
framework of the technical development offered by today’s market
situation.
The guiding principles of this
document can be summarised by the following statement:
Preservation enables us to provide our successors with as much of the information contained in our holdings as it is possible to achieve in our professional working environment. It is the responsibility of an archive to assess the needs of its users, both current and future, and to balance those needs against the condition of the archive and its contents.
There are four basic tasks that are performed by all archives:
acquisition
documentation
access
preservation.
While the primary aim of an archive is to ensure sustained access to stored information, the indispensable prerequisite to achieve this aim, however, is to preserve the information placed in the care of the collection. For most documents this means the use of the best practices to ensure the physical and chemical integrity of the original documents. Sound archives have to ensure that, in the replay process, the recorded signals can be retrieved to the same, or better, fidelity standard than was possible when they were recorded.
Comment:
Advances in the technology
of analogue recordings often enable modern replay equipment to
retrieve more information from the carriers than was possible at the
time of recording.
It must also be noted that,
for a number of reasons, some of the holdings retained in sound
archives are not the original recordings but copies. In such cases,
these copies must be considered to be the original.
Documents are the bearers of information:
primary information, consisting of the sonic content, and
ancillary or secondary information which may take manifold forms.
Both primary and secondary
information form part of the Audio Heritage. The relative importance
of the two will vary depending on the content, the type of carrier
and the needs of users, both present and future. Secondary
information, however, becomes a crucial factor in the authentication
of primary information once the sonic content has been transferred
from its original carrier for preservation purposes (cf paragraph
5).
Comment:
In many cases the carriers have become collectable cultural objects
in their own right, eg mass produced sound discs. Furthermore,
secondary information such as hand written notes etc may constitute
an indispensable part of the sound document (the original carrier
and associated material). It is the task of the archive to evaluate
the degree to which the document needs to be preserved in order to
serve future users and to then implement a suitable preservation
strategy.
For traditional paper based
documents, the long-term preservation of the original carrier is
(with a few exceptions) generally feasible. In general, audio
carriers (except metal matrices of mass replicated carriers) will
have a shorter life-expectancy than that of good quality traditional
text materials.
In addition, audio carriers are
more vulnerable to damage caused by poor handling, by poorly
maintained or malfunctioning equipment and by poor storage than
conventional text documents. Due to the high density of information,
digital carriers are generally more vulnerable to loss of
information through damage than analogue carriers. If a carrier is
damaged by poor storage or mishandling, the information may be lost.
This applies to both digital and analogue material.
Comment:
The level of risk of a carrier will depend upon the vulnerability of
the carrier, the quality and maintenance of replay equipment, the
professional skills of the operator and the quality of the storage.
The level of risk ranges from the very high for an LP frequently
replayed by conventional mechanical pick-up systems to relatively
low for a rarely used analogue quarter inch polyester tape replayed
by well maintained equipment.
a. Analogue
Analogue formats are being phased out as systems, both because carriers and hardware are no longer manufactured in the volumes once available and because product support is steadily being withdrawn from them.
b. Digital
None of the digital recording
systems developed specifically for audio has achieved a proven
stability in the market place, let alone in an archive. With the
exception of the audio CD, the DVD audio and the MiniDisc, all
specific digital audio formats have become obsolete after a short
period in the market leaving many carriers still in good condition
but without the machines required to access the sounds. In recent
years there has been a clear shift from specific audio formats such
as R-DAT and CD-R (audio) to formats storing content as data, ie
file formats in a computer environment. Although, in principle, file
formats, operating systems and computer storage media will also be
threatened by obsolescence, this professional environment makes the
problem easier to manage than the digital audio formats driven by
the consumer market.
Comment:
R-DAT and CD-R (audio) were the first digital recording systems with
considerable market acceptance in the field of audio to have been
employed as digital target formats for archiving purposes. Neither
of these systems, however, has a proven record of archival
stability. R-DAT, as a format, is obsolete and holdings are
threatened by future unavailability of replay equipment and spare
parts. CD-R is still widely used, although, at present, the use of
recordable CDs and DVDs must be seen as potentially dangerous to the
survival of the sounds (cf IASA-TC 04, 6.6). The Technical
Committee, therefore, strongly recommends the use of true file
formats in a computer storage environment and reliance on the data
integrity provisions associated therewith (cf paragraphs 10, 12, and
13, and IASA-TC 04, 6.1).
a. By preservation of the carrier
Although the life of most audio
carriers cannot be extended indefinitely, efforts must be made to
preserve carriers in useable condition for as long as is feasible.
Preservation requires storage in an environment suited to the
purpose, separating primary and secondary information sources where
necessary and possible, and performing routine maintenance and
cleaning as needed. Maintenance also includes the regular checking
of test tones, if available, on analogue carriers and of the data
integrity of digital carriers. In addition, the equipment used for
handling and replay must meet the physical requirements of the
carriers. Preservation includes minimising the use of
originals/archival copies by making access copies available.
b. By subsequent copying of the information
Because the life expectancy of
carriers and the availability of hardware is limited, the
preservation of the document in the long term can only be achieved
by copying the contents to new carriers/systems when it becomes
necessary.
In the analogue domain, the primary information suffers an increase
in degradation each time it is copied. Only the digital domain
offers the possibility of lossless copying when refreshing or
migrating recordings (cf paragraph 12). For the long-term
preservation of the primary information contained on an analogue
carrier it is necessary, therefore, to first transfer it to the
digital domain.
Removing the primary information from the original carrier raises
the question of future authentication of the sound. Future users,
for the reasons given in this document, may only have access to the
primary information of a sound document in the form of a copy on a
new carrier/system. Once carrier decay or system obsolescence makes
access to the primary information of a sound document only possible
by use of a copy of the original carrier, the importance of adequate
secondary information increases. Archives need, therefore, to record
in a systematic manner the relevant secondary information contained
in the original document and to make this information accessible
together with the copy of the primary information. By this means,
future users can be sure of the authenticity of the primary data.
If several copies of a sound document are available, the best must be selected for the further preservation of its content. Additionally, cautious and appropriate cleaning and restoration procedures must be performed to optimise signal retrieval.
Comment:
With mass replicated carriers - specifically mechanical and optical
carriers - the replay quality of different copies may vary
considerably because of the way that they have previously been
handled and stored. It may, therefore, be advantageous to extend the
search for the best copies to other collections on a national, or
even international scale.
Archival holdings in a
narrower sense, ie non-replicated recordings, may often be available
in two or more versions. For example, an original carrier (tape,
cassette, instantaneous disk) and an archival master which is a copy
of the original. While archival masters, or younger carriers in
general, may often be in a better state of physical preservation,
they may be of inferior audio quality due to poorer earlier transfer
technology and the inescapable losses in the analogue copying
process. Consequently, the retrievable quality of the various
available copies must be checked against each other. It is a common
experience that signal retrieval from well preserved early original
tapes yields better results than that from their analogue archival
master tape copies.
When choosing cleaning and
restoration procedures, utmost care must be taken to balance
improvement of signal retrieval against possible further
deterioration, even the entire loss of the carrier. Therefore, in
the transfer of any historical and/or endangered carrier, the use of
the originals must be kept to the minimum at all times. Heavily
deteriorated carriers may even be lost completely in the attempt to
replay them. In such critical cases it is necessary to safeguard the
sonic content by making a straight copy of the first replay which
may, in the case of successful restoration, be changed for a later
transfer. In addition, the straight copy should be used for the
experimental calibration of parameters.
Optimal retrieval of the signal
on analogue recordings can only be achieved by modern, well
maintained replay equipment, ideally of the latest generation, in
order to keep replay distortions to the absolute minimum. When
replaying historical formats, replay parameters (speed, playback
equalisation, track format etc) must be chosen objectively and be
based upon knowledge of the given historical format. The replay
equipment has to be optimally adjusted to the correct parameters and
any experimentation with settings must be done using a straight copy
of the original recording. In order to keep possible damage to the
original carriers to minimum, replay equipment must be regularly
maintained to professional standards. To aid in this and to diagnose
emerging problems, calibration media suitable for the replay
equipment must be used whenever obtainable.
For digital originals, the same
principles apply. It must be noted, however, that despite nominal
format compatibility, minor - or even major - differences may occur
between different players when retrieving signals from the same
carriers. In order to detect such problems, error monitoring during
replay is imperative.
In addition, it must be noted
that format incompatibilities may be discovered in some digital
formats when trying to retrieve the various kinds of sub-code
information.
Comment:
It is not an easy task to assess the correct replay parameters for a
given analogue sound document if objective information on the
recording format parameters is missing. As in other fields of
historical research, the use of cautiously chosen approximations is
permissible when necessary. As a matter of principle, however,
irreversible steps must be avoided. Subjective treatments must only
be applied to access copies.
The systematic retrieval of
sub-code information of digital originals, especially that contained
in original R-DAT recordings, is still a widely neglected chapter in
the safeguarding of useful secondary information. The reasons are
due mainly to incompatibilities of sub-codes as not all players and
interfaces support all sub-codes. As yet, no routines have been
developed for the further safeguarding of this information in other
than the original format. Compatibility problems often also occur in
the replay of recordable or rewritable optical disks.
It should also be noted that
several recent digitisation projects have suffered from inadequate
signal retrieval from original documents because of the lack of
professional knowledge and the appropriate equipment.
It is mandatory that transfers
made from old to new archive formats be carried out without
subjective alterations or "improvements" such as de-noising, etc. It
is essential that the full dynamic range and frequency response of
the original is transferred.
It is important to understand
that the intended signal is only part of a given sound document. The
unintended and undesirable artefacts (noise, distortions) are also
part of the sound document, either caused by limited historical
recording technology, or subsequently added to the original signal
by mishandling (eg clicks) or by poor storage. Both have to be
preserved with utmost accuracy, which has consequences for the
choice of digital resolution (cf paragraph 10).
It must be noted, however, that
some inaccuracies of original recordings, such as those caused by
misaligned recording heads in analogue and digital magnetic tape
recordings, can only be corrected successfully in the replay process
of the original tape. "Azimuth Error" is common in analogue magnetic
tape recordings, particularly if recording equipment was not
regularly maintained by professional technicians. Minute
inaccuracies in the tape path adjustment of original recordings, eg
R-DAT tapes, may cause a considerable and avoidable rise in errors.
Print-through, a storage
related artefact with analogue magnetic tape, can also only be
reduced on the original tape before the transfer.
The careful documentation of
all parameters and procedures employed in the transfer process is
essential.
Transfer technologies from
originals may improve in the future. In particular, there may be
improvements in the retrieval of signals from the original carrier.
Original analogue carriers may contain secondary information which
falls outside the frequency range of the primary information and
which may assist in correcting inaccuracies in the original
recording. Most current transfer technologies result in an
irretrievable loss of this information.
Because of the potential for
improvements in primary and secondary information retrieval and the
availability of ever increasing digital resolutions, all transfers
should be considered preliminary. Hence the original carriers and
suitable play-back equipment must be preserved whenever possible.
However, although the possibility of a re-transfer in the future
must be considered, all transfers must be carried out to the highest
standards possible at the time of transfer. They may, in the future,
become the last transfer from the originals.
Comment:
A recent improvement in transfer technology is the laser replay of
some mechanical carriers which provides contact-less, optical
replay. Information about speed fluctuations (wow and flutter) of
analogue magnetic tapes may be found in the variations of the
reproduced bias frequency. Processes that can use this information
to correct the primary information are now available and may
become part of future transfer routines.
Digital coding schemes
(formats) as well as digital resolution are the subject of further
development. Notwithstanding these developments, it must be stressed
that coding schemes used for preservation purposes must be openly
defined and not proprietary to a limited number of manufacturers.
Data (file) formats are superior to digital audio streams (R-DAT,
CD-Audio) in terms of data security and their monitoring.
Digital formats have a limited
resolution set by the defined and finite sampling frequency and
digital word length. While for digitally originated signals the
original resolution should comply with the digital preservation
format, the choice for analogue originals will always be a
compromise. In principle, high digital resolutions are desirable for
the adequate representation of all the minute subtleties of original
analogue signals.
Comment:
In recent years, storing audio in form of file formats has become
the dominant practice and the .wav or BWF format has
become a de-facto standard. This format is officially recommended by
the Technical Committee (cf IASA-TC 04, 6.1.1.1 and 6.6.2.2).
Currently, A/D converters
providing 192 kHz sampling rate and 24 bit amplitude resolution are
standard. For analogue originals IASA recommends a minimum digital
resolution of 48 kHz sampling rate at 24 bit word length. In
heritage/memory institutions a resolution of 96 kHz / 24 bit has
become widely adopted. Better transfers of the unintended parts of a
sound document (cf paragraph 8) make the future removal of these
artefacts by digital signal processing easier when making access
copies. Speech recordings, because of the transient character of
consonants, must be treated like music recordings.
As a rule, it is generally accepted that, when selecting a digital target format for original analogue or linear digital recordings, formats employing data reduction (frequently mistakenly called data "compression") based on perceptual coding (“lossy codecs”) must not be used. Transfers employing such data reduction result in the irretrievable loss of parts of the primary information. The results of such “lossy” data reduction may sound identical or very similar to the unreduced (linear) signal, but the further use of the data reduced signal will be severely restricted. These archival principles should also be applied, whenever possible, to the creation of original recordings made with the intention of being archived. If, however, contents come to an archive having been recorded on data reduced, non-linear format, such contents must be preserved faithfully. There is no objection, however, to the use of lossless, ie fully reversible compression.
Comment:
Data reduction is a powerful tool in the dissemination of audio
signals. Its use is, however, counter to the ethical principle of
preserving as much of the primary information as possible. Data
reduction does not permit the restoration of the signal to its
original acoustic condition and will, in addition, limit the further
use of the recording because of the artefacts generated when
cascading perceptually coded material - for example, in the making
of a new programme incorporating the original sounds.
In the case of recordings
originated in data reduced formats, a major problem with
obsolescence of equipment may arise when the format of origination
is of a proprietary character such as the MiniDisc and similar
future systems (cf IASA-TC 04, 5.5.12.1).
Digital archiving has to observe the following core principles:
Each digital copy produced for archival purposes must be checked against the imported file ("verification"), be free of uncorrectable errors, and have the lowest possible number of correctable errors. An error status report has to be produced and kept for future monitoring. Digital recordings entering the archive from outside sources may, however, contain uncorrectable errors; again, an error status report including the position of such errors must be retained.
Each carrier containing digital recordings must be checked at regular intervals for data integrity.
Digital content must be copied to a new carrier whenever the number of errors increases significantly - at any rate before uncorrectable errors occur ("refreshment").
Digital content must be copied before the old carriers, formats, and/or hardware become obsolete ("migration").
It is essential to keep at least two digital preservation copies and to use additional copies for access as appropriate. The preservation copies should be kept in different locations whenever possible.
Whenever digital archiving is carried out, the core principles mentioned above must be observed. It is preferable that the checks should be performed automatically, as is possible with computer controlled equipment and automated equipment such as DMSSs (paragraph 13). If this is not possible, then manual checks will need to be undertaken on a statistically significant basis.
Comment:
In their essence,
these principles are identical with those recommended for the
analogue world. A fundamental difference, however, is the
qualitative dimension of the digital world, which permits objective
validation of the integrity of recordings. Regular data integrity
monitoring is amongst the core obligations of digital preservation
routines. Digital carriers and systems may fail, without any
warning, at any time. It is imperative, therefore, to have at least
one duplicate (backup copy) of each digital archival copy, ideally
in a separate place. Also, strategies for minimising risks to
digital archives are greatly supported by digital technologies,
specifically by networking between the primary collection, the user
and backup archives.
After extensive pilot projects, digital mass storage systems (DMSS) have been installed in major archives for the storage of large audio collections. Such systems permit the automatic performance of tasks including checking of data integrity, refreshment, and, finally, migration with a minimum use of man power (cf IASA-TC 04, 6.2).
Comment:
Several sound archive groups (mainly radio archives) have
successfully pioneered digital mass storage installations. The
driving force was the potential of DMSSs for "eternal" preservation
as well as the new dimension of remote access to holdings stored in
them. Presently, some national archives and research archives are
also about to introduce such systems. Because of the considerable
investment costs of today's DMSSs, smaller collections are not able
to afford such systems at the moment. However, small and scalable
systems are becoming affordable as hardware prices continue to fall.
It is anticipated that software prices will also begin to drop thus
making automated digital archiving affordable for a large number of
archives and collections, and even individuals.
In order to avoid the risk of
losing audio content on original carriers that are in immediate
danger of terminal decay, many sound archives cannot wait for a DMSS
to be installed before copying such holdings to digital carriers.
To date, the following digital
target systems/formats have been used in such cases: R-DAT, CD-R
(audio format, as well as data format) and computer data recording
systems such as DLT or LTO.
Comment:
R-DAT, originally widely used as digital target format for the
transfer of analogue audio, has lost ground dramatically because of
format obsolescence. Also, in view of the availability of higher
digital resolutions, the format has become less attractive. Although
the same is true for the CD-R (audio) format, this medium is still
widely used, particularly by smaller institutions, because of its
financial feasibility. Due to a lack of standards and compatibility
problems, however, CD-Rs and DVD-Rs can only be considered reliable
after thorough testing. This is time consuming and implies
significant investment in soft- and hardware for testing. IASA,
therefore, does not recommend the use of either recordable CDs and
DVDs as the sole digital target format for archives that cannot
afford such test procedures (cf IASA-TC 04, 6.6).
Using a computer based
system which incorporates tape formats such as DLT or LTO for
nearline or offline access incurs greater expense, mainly because of
the cost of the tape drives. For smaller amounts of storage, the use
of hard disk drives (HDD) has become affordable. It must be noted,
however, that in manual approaches, as opposed to automated storage
systems such as DMSSs, the lower costs of hard- and software have to
be offset against a considerably increased requirement for labour
with all its implications in terms of risk to the carriers and
personnel costs (cf IASA-TC 04, 6.5).
In addition to descriptive,
administrative and structural metadata, a set of preservation
metadata is mandatory to evaluate the technical parameters of a
recording and to draw appropriate conclusions for the management of
preservation.
Preservation metadata should
contain full details about:
the original carrier, its format and state of preservation.
replay equipment for the original carrier and its parameters.
the digital resolution, file format information, and all equipment used.
the operators involved in the process.
checksum – the digital signature that permits authentication of the file.
details of the secondary information sources.
Comment:
Metadata, often described as "data about data", is, in the digital
environment, a detailed and specific extension of cataloguing
practice. However, when associated with digital collections, it is a
necessary part of their use and control. A Preservation Metadata Set
is a statement of the information that is expected to be required to
manage preservation of digital collections and will supplement and
incorporate the descriptive, administrative and structural metadata
sets assembled for the digital collection. Preservation metadata
will be a key component in the preservation and management of any
digital collection and must be designed to support future
preservation strategies. Metadata can be stored within the resource
it describes (eg file formats that support descriptive headers),
separate from the resource (eg an external catalogue) or separate
but linked to the resource (eg a file linked with the digital object
in a repository structure). Each strategy has particular benefits
and disadvantages. It is possible, and probably desirable, to use
these strategies in parallel.
Sooner or later, all audio
contents destined for long-term preservation will have to be
transferred to digital storage repositories. As the transfer process
is time consuming and cost intensive, it should follow a strategy
based on the individual situation of the collection and the specific
policy of an archive.
Generally, priority should be
given to those documents, which are:
at immediate risk, and/or
part of a commercially unsupported system, and/or
in regular demand.
The following analogue carriers can be considered to be inherently unstable and should, therefore, be copied:
cylinders
instantaneous discs of all types and especially "lacquer" discs
acetate tapes
all long/double/triple play open reel tape and all cassette tapes of any type
any carrier that shows obvious signs of decay either by inherent instability (eg "sticky shed syndrome") or by deterioration caused by improper handling or storage (eg mechanical deformation, mould, etc).
Digital carriers must also be
regarded as possibly endangered by decay, especially if they have
never been checked for their data integrity. Several formats already
show obvious signs of chemical decomposition with the consequent
implications for the integrity of the data they contain.
Apart from carrier degradation,
recent development suggests that obsolescence and the associated
unavailability of replay equipment may become an equal, if not
greater threat for the future retrievability of information.
Practically all analogue and most dedicated digital audio formats,
apart from optical disks, are obsolete. Maintaining the availability
of replay equipment will become an ever increasing problem. Sound
archives are strongly advised to check their equipment against the
size of their holdings and take immediate action to ensure the
future availability of sufficient modern (cf paragraph 7) equipment
to enable the optimal replay of the entire holdings.
Access copies are to be made
whenever possible. In contrast to archival transfers, however, such
access or distribution copies may, based on the requirements of
clients, be modified by speed corrections, filtering, etc. Data
reduction may also be employed when compatible with user
requirements. Again, as with transfers to archival masters, careful
documentation of all parameters and procedures employed is
essential.
Comment:
It must be noted that - with one exception - the above list of
carriers does not imply an order of priority. The order of priority
of transfer has to be decided for each collection after the carriers
have been examined. It will depend on the individual rates of decay
of the carriers, the availability of suitable play-back equipment,
and, to a lesser extent, the existence of duplicate copies of the
material.
The exception is that
priority must be given to “lacquer” or “acetate” discs. Even
when these discs are playable they are at grave risk of suddenly
cracking or crazing without warning. This is because of the steadily
increasing stress between the lacquer coating and the supporting
base plate. This stress is generated by shrinkage of the lacquer
coating. Lacquer discs should, therefore, be given the highest
priority in the copying programme.
Format obsolescence is
associated with a vanishing market of test equipment including test
(calibration) tapes and discs and ancillary accessories such as
empty reels, splicing and leader tapes, etc. It is highly
recommended to take immediate action to ensure an environment for
the optimal transfer of the entire collection.
The exchange of information between archives performing preservation work is strongly encouraged, as is the dissemination of information to small collections that do not merit the maintenance of obsolescent hardware and are not able to transfer their holdings to digital, let alone undertake the permanent future maintenance of such digital corpora. The information should cover all aspects of preservation work.
Comment:
The greater part of the world’s heritage of audiovisual documents
reflecting the linguistic and cultural diversity of mankind is kept
in comparatively small institutions. Because of their endemic lack
of financial resources, these institutions cannot be seen as
archives in the narrower sense. Moreover, considerable quantities of
materials of international importance are still kept by the scholars
and other private individuals who collected them. These smaller
collections will be able to prioritise their work when they learn
about problematic carriers and the actions undertaken by larger
archives. In several instances, larger archives may be able to
perform certain preservation activities for smaller institutions.
National and international co-operation in this respect is
imperative. National Archives with a DMSS should consider hosting
smaller sound file collections until digital preservation becomes
widely affordable.
A sound archive relies heavily
on the equipment and processes necessary to preserve the documents
in its care and to provide access to the files. It is a requirement,
therefore, that the archive works to equip itself with the necessary
skills and knowledge and to maintain these at a high level.
The archive must, as a result,
keep itself and its employees updated with the latest scientific and
technical information from the field of AV archiving. This will
include information concerning the extraction of both primary and
secondary information from carriers and improvements in preservation
and restoration practices.
Lars Gaustad, Norway (Chair of Committee)
Kevin Bradley, Australia (Vice-chair of Committee)
Drago Kunej, Slovenia (Secretary of Committee)
Nigel Bewley, United Kingdom
George Boston, United Kingdom
George Brock-Nannestad, Denmark
Alain Carou, France
Matthew Davies, Australia
Jean-Marc Fontaine, France
Ian Gilmour, Australia
Albrecht Häfner, Germany
Clifford Harkness, United Kingdom
Matthias Helling, Germany
Franz Lechleitner, Austria
Allan McConnell, USA
Michel Merten, Belgium
Stig Lennart Molneryd, Sweden
Dietrich Schüller, Austria (Chairman Emeritus of Committee)
Ted Sheldon, USA
Tommy Sjöberg, Sweden
Lloyd Stickells, United Kingdom
William Storm, USA
Zoltan Vajda, Hungary
Nadja Wallaszkovits, Austria
© International Association of Sound
and Audiovisual Archives (IASA), 2005
Translation not permitted without
consent of IASA Executive Board